Chang’e, the Moon Goddess, is one of the most enduring figures in Chinese mythology, celebrated for her beauty, tragic love story, and close association with the Moon. Her story of love, sacrifice, and immortality is famous in Chinese culture and popular/folk religion, influencing art, literature, and festivals. Chang’e’s evolving role as a goddess reflects the complexity of the Chinese religious and philosophical tradition, including her integration into the Daoist pantheon and the celestial bureaucracy that governs Chinese cosmology.
The origins of Chang’e’s myth trace back to the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), a time when lunar worship and celestial bodies were central to Chinese cosmology. The earliest documented record of “Chang’e Flying to the Moon” can be traced back to the book Guicang 歸藏, which is a divination text (Li 2014: 51). Her story is intertwined with that of Hou Yi, the divine archer who saved humanity by shooting down nine of the ten suns that threatened the Earth. As a reward, Hou Yi received the elixir of immortality from the Queen Mother of the West, Xi Wangmu (Pan 2013: 4). In one version of the myth, Chang’e consumes the elixir because of dire circumstances. Her reasons are either to prevent it from being stolen or out of a longing for immortality. After she consumes the elixir she ascends to the Moon, leaving her husband behind. This transformation elevated Chang’e to divine status and tied her eternally to the Moon, which in Chinese philosophy symbolizes yin, femininity, and mystery (Chang 2023: 107).
As a goddess, Chang’e holds an important place within the Daoist pantheon. Daoism, with its focus on harmony with the cosmos and the pursuit of immortality, provides a natural framework for her myth (lecture 9/9). According to Arthur Wolf, the Daoist pantheon operates within a celestial bureaucracy that mirrors earthly governance (Wolf 1975: 145). Gods and goddesses, including Chang’e, have specific roles and responsibilities, functioning as sort of mediators between human mortals and the Dao, the ultimate cosmic principle. Chang’e’s association with the Moon and the elixir of immortality places her among deities who preside over celestial and spiritual domains. She aligns with Daoist ideals of transcendence and balance. Her role complements that of her husband, Hou Yi, who embodies yang energy, creating a harmonious dynamic reflective of Daoist dualities and balance (lecture 8/28).
Chang’e’s influence extends beyond Daoist cosmology into Chinese popular religion and cultural traditions. She is a key figure in the Mid-Autumn Festival, one of the most significant celebrations in China. During this festival, families gather to admire the Moon, share mooncakes, burn incense on a long altar, recount her story, and pray to her and the moon for luck and safety (Yang 2006: 264). Chang’e embodies themes of reunion and separation, mirroring very human emotions of love and longing. Her myth, centered on her eternal exile on the Moon, resonates with universal and relatable conditions, reinforcing her cultural significance and relatability to humans.
Chang’e’s story also highlights the interconnectedness of Chinese mythology, where deities, celestial beings, ghosts, demons, and ancestors form a spiritual network. Within this system, gods like Chang’e are not distant or abstract, they interact with human life. Examples of this influence include affecting agricultural cycles, seasonal festivals, and human morality. The Moon, Chang’e’s most famous symbol, was believed to govern time, tides, and fertility. Themes such as these make her a highly influential and important deity. As Wolf notes, the Chinese pantheon reflects an organized hierarchy of divine powers, with each deity occupying a specific niche within a broader cosmological structure. Chang’e’s position as the Moon Goddess emphasizes her significance in this divine world (Wolf 1975: 145).
Her representation in art and literature further explains her divine role. In classical Chinese art, especially during the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties, Chang’e was often depicted as a graceful and ethereal female figure. Her flowing robes, serene expression, and association with the jade rabbit, her lunar companion, symbolized her immortality and connection to the Moon (Pan 2013: 5). By the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), depictions of Chang’e began to humanize her, reflecting a broader cultural trend that emphasized individual emotion and relatability. This evolution in imagery mirrors her enduring relevance as both a celestial deity and a Chinese cultural icon.
Chang’e’s myth involves Daoist themes of immortality and spiritual ascension. The elixir of immortality, central to her story, is a recurring motif in Daoist alchemy, symbolizing humanity’s quest to transcend earthly limitations. The jade rabbit, her companion and guardian, is said to prepare elixirs on the moon (Li 2023: 358). Additionally, in some versions of her story, she transformed into a three-legged toad; in others, she resides on the Moon with a toad, a rabbit, and the woodcutter Wu Gang. Legend says that on the fifteenth day of the lunar month, when the Moon is fullest, Hou Yi visits her in the Palace of the Moon, symbolizing the union of the sun and moon. In one variant, the toad dances while pounding the elixir of immortality in a mortar, evoking rebirth through its skin-shedding, a theme tied to the Moon’s cycles of growth, decline, and renewal (Smith 2006: 416). In this way, Chang’e serves not only as a cultural and religious figure but also as a philosophical metaphor for the Daoist pursuit of harmony with the cosmos, while also embodying themes of transformation, renewal, and the eternal quest for transcendence. Evidently, the Dao is not only transcendent and immanent, but spiritual and material.
Modern interpretations of Chang’e continue to adapt her myth for contemporary audiences. Films like “Over the Moon” (2020) reimagine her story, blending Chinese tradition and history with modern storytelling to introduce her to global audiences. Also, her cultural significance has been amplified by scientific endeavors such as the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, also known as the Chang’e Project. These missions, which include lunar rovers and orbital satellites, reflect China’s pride in linking ancient mythology with modern technological achievements, highlighting the timeless relevance of her story.
Chang’e’s integration into the Daoist pantheon and the broader celestial bureaucracy of Chinese mythology highlights her multiplicities (Shahar and Weller 1996: 4). Not only is she a divine figure representing the Moon’s influence, a symbol of feminine beauty and mystery, but a reflection of longing for transcendence. Her connection to the moon highlights themes of nature and time, as well as the aspirations of human religion.
In conclusion, Chang’e importance in Chinese mythology, religion, and philosophy cannot be underestimated. Her story of sacrifice and immortality is universal, and transcends time: both famous in ancient times and important in modernity. Across the platforms in which the goddess is revered, Chang’e remains a powerful symbol of hope, beauty, and transcendence. Through her integration into the Daoist pantheon and the celestial bureaucracy, she exemplifies the harmonious interaction between the divine beings and human beings, the celestial and the earthly to ensure her prominence in the cultural and spiritual landscapes of China.
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