Kami Humphrey
History
Heibai Wuchang, translated as Black and White Impermanence, refers to a pair of underworld ghosts known as Bai Wuchang and Hei Wuchang, or White Impermanence and Black Impermanence, respectively. These two figures’ origins are derived from the Buddhist concept of anitya, or impermanence, which is translated as wuchang in Chinese (Wang, 2). While currently recognized as a pair, Heibai Wuchang’s preceding form was known as Wuchang Gui, or the Impermanence Ghost, emerging sometime in the Song dynasty (Ōya, 61). This title is believed to refer to Bai Wuchang who did not yet have Hei Wuchang as a partner (Ōya, 62). However, Wuchang Gui eventually transformed into the more commonly known Heibai Wuchang pair, and by late imperial China, it is believed that Heibai Wuchang became accepted as a part of the Daoist pantheon (Ōya, 62; Wang, 2).
Before death, the Heibai Wuchang ghosts were known as Xie Bi’an and Fan Wujiu, court bailiffs who were posthumously granted their underworld roles in recognition of their loyalty to one another during their mortal lives (Wang, 9). The details of this story are outlined in the “Legend of the Nantai Bridge” in which Xie and Fan were searching for an escaped convict when it started to rain (Lim, 134). While Xie went to get help, or an umbrella, depending on what version is told, Fan waited for him underneath the Nantai Bridge (Lim, 134; Sutton, 542; Wang, 9). However, Fan drowned due to flooding, which resulted in Xie hanging himself out of guilt (Lim 134; Wang 9). From their deaths onward, Xie and Fan became Heibai Wuchang, with Xie as White Impermanence and Fan as Black Impermanence.
Images
The more well-known depictions of Heibai Wuchang portray the ghosts as two male figures, Bai Wuchang in white and Hei Wuchang in black, both wearing tall hats and ceremonial dress (Ōya, 60). These two figures are usually positioned so that Bai Wuchang is placed on the right and Hei Wuchang is placed on the left, where right is the yang position while left is the yin position (Sutton, 542). On Bai Wuchang’s hat are the characters Yi jian da ji, which can be translated as “Great fortune whenever I appear” (Sutton, 542). Written on a board Hei Wuchang holds are the characters Fen ming shan e, translated as “I distinguish good and bad” (Sutton, 542). These writings refer to Heibai Wuchang’s roles in the underworld.
The Black and White Impermanence ghosts’ appearances seem to reflect their deaths as Xie Bi’an and Fan Wujiu. Bai Wuchang is often presented as a tall figure with a pale complexion and a tongue hanging from his mouth, an indication of death by hanging (Ōya, 60; Sutton, 542; Wang, 9). On the other hand, Hei Wuchang is short and bloated with a dark complexion, in reference to Fan’s drowning (Sutton, 542).
Role
The Black and White Impermanence ghosts’ main duty is to act as guardians and gatekeepers of the underworld. After their deaths at Nantai Bridge, Xie and Fan were appointed as assistants to the City God to preside over hell by either Guanyin or the Jade Emperor (Sutton, 542; Wang, 9). They are also responsible for escorting the souls of the dead into the underworld (Lim, 134).
The underworld is described as having a bureaucratic organization, where the deceased are judged and assigned to places befitting of their mortal lives (Bokenkamp, 34). The underworld is generally understood as being divided into eighteen hells with the afterlife being considered the continuation of one’s mortal life (Bokenkamp, 35; Lim, 138). As bailiffs, Xie and Fan were involved in legal processes, where some of their responsibilities included enforcing orders and escorting prisoners. Following their transformation into Heibai Wuchang, they assume similar roles of escorting the deceased to the underworld and guarding the Ghostly Gateway to Hell (Lim, 134; Wang, 10).
There is also a hierarchy of the supernatural administrators of the underworld, in which Heibai Wuchang assumes their place. As assistants to the Ten Kings of Hell, the Black and White Impermanence ghosts’ names indicate their positions in the underworld (Lim, 134). For example, Bai Wuchang is also titled Qi Ye, which means “Seventh Master,” while Hei Wuchang is Ba Ye, or “Eighth Master” (Lim, 134).
Though these two figures both guard the underworld and escort the deceased, their individual roles can also be differentiated. The Black and White Impermanence ghosts have adopted what could be considered a “good cop, bad cop” dichotomy. As the yang figure, Bai Wuchang is associated with giving rewards while Hei Wuchang, the yin figure of the two, is responsible for issuing punishments (Sutton, 542).
In some cases, Heibai Wuchang can assume the role of a wealth god. This is the case in Singapore’s Ah Peh cult, where “Ah Peh” is a general term used for underworld gods (Wang, 3). The Ah Peh cult believes in the idea of transformation in which burning paper goods will be exchanged for real goods for those in the afterlife (Wang, 5). However, taking it a couple steps further, there is a belief that spirit money that appears in the afterlife can be actualized into real money based on the gods’ judgment of one’s own merits (Wang, 8). As a result, worshippers burn spirit money for Heibai Wuchang in order to receive real money (Wang, 5).
Connections to Society and Culture
Heibai Wuchang makes an appearance in settings related to the supernatural, but these two figures are not limited to realm of worship. The dynamic character of the Black and White Impermanence ghosts has implications that extend beyond the scope of Chinese religion.
In terms of Chinese cultural beliefs, details of Heibai Wuchang’s origin legend have established various symbols, a prominent one being bridges. Due to the relation to Fan’s drowning and Xie’s subsequent suicide, bridges are considered places where one can travel between the Yin and Yang realms (Lim, 143; Wang, 10). As a result, bridges have played a role in funeral rites, most notably the use of the Golden and Silver Bridges that allow reincarnation into wealthy families (Wang, 10).
Not only do the Heibai Wuchang ghosts influence Chinese culture, but their evolution also relates to changes in society, one example including commercial growth. The economy plays a large role in the emergence of wealth gods, particularly those of a more dubious nature, such as Zhu Bajie, the guardian deity of sex workers in Taiwan (Brose, 169). Like Zhu Bajie, in addition to their original responsibilities, the Heibai Wuchang ghosts also assume the role of a general wealth god, mirroring capitalistic exchanges that present themselves in society, instead between worshippers and the supernatural (Wang, 5).
With technological advancements, the portrayal of Heibai Wuchang has adapted to reach more global audiences. One instance is the incorporation of the Chinese supernatural in online games. For example, in the Chinese horror game Paper Bride I, Heibai Wuchang is translated as “black and white reapers” instead of the Black and White Impermanence (Wu, 551). Because grim reapers have similar characteristics as Heibai Wuchang, this translation serves to preserve the term’s cultural significance while making it easier for foreign players to understand its meaning (Wu, 551).
Technology has also allowed for the reimagining of Chinese religion in a more modern context. With the onset of COVID-19 restrictions, temples, especially in Singapore and Malaysia, have taken to the Internet (Lim, 133). This was the case on May 19, 2020, when the possession of a spirit medium by Dua Ya Pek, referring to Bai Wuchang, was live streamed on Facebook from a temple in Malaysia (Lim, 133). By merging religion and technology, this sets a precedent that continues to broaden the means in which society can interact with the Chinese spiritual world.
Bibliography
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Sutton, Donald S. “Ritual Drama and Moral Order: Interpreting the Gods’ Festival Troupes of Southern Taiwan.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 49, no. 3, Aug. 1990, pp. 535-54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2057770.
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Asian Religions at UTK 